The origin of    cameras

The    history of the camera can be    traced much further back than the introduction of photography. Cameras    evolved from the camera obscura, and continued to change through many    generations of photographic technology, including daguerreotypes, collotypes,    dry plates, film, and digital cameras.

Photographic    cameras were a development of the camera obscure, a device possibly dating    back to the ancient Chinese and ancient Greeks, which uses a pinhole or    lens to project an image of the scene outside upside-down onto a viewing    surface.

An    Arab physicist, Ibn al-Haytham, published his Book of Optics in 1021 AD. He    created the first pinhole camera after observing how light traveled through    a window shutter. Ibn al-Haytham realized that smaller holes would create    sharper images. Ibn al-Haytham is also credited with inventing the first    camera obscura.

On    24 January 1544 mathematician and instrument maker Reiners Gemma Frisius of    Leuven University used one to watch a solar eclipse, publishing a diagram    of his method in De Radio Astronomical et Geometrico in the    following year. In 1558 Giovanni Batista Della Porte was the first to    recommend the method as an aid to drawing.

Before    the invention of photographic processes there was no way to preserve the    images produced by these cameras apart from manually tracing them. The    earliest cameras were room-sized, with space for one or more people inside;    these gradually evolved into more and more compact models such as that by    Niépce's time portable handheld cameras suitable for photography were readily    available. The first camera that was small and portable enough to be    practical for photography was envisioned by Johann Zahn in 1685, though it    would be almost 150 years before such an application was possible.

14. E opinion of experts on a certain access method have changed

15. D a description of physical limitation of a certain access

16. F

17. A the details of ecological and environmental of canory

18. B a description of lack of cooperation and research

27.    N  the Grimme brother knew they would    gain international fame, the lasting fame would shock the Grimmes

28.    NG the Grimmes were enforced to do work of their own secret

29.    Y  the sales of Fairy Tale in England    was higher than in German

30.    NG

31.    Y some parents still thought the Fairy Tale was not good for their children

32.    N the fairy Tale author considered the man who made contribution to the    story of Cinderella as the original model

单选题3题

33.C

34.D.

完成句子5题

Grimm's    Fairy Tales

This    book contains 209 tales collected by the brothers Grimm.

The    exact print source is unknown. The text appears to be based on the    translation by Margaret Hunt called Grimm's Household Tales, but it is not    identical to her edition. (Some of the translations are slightly different,    the arrangement also differs, and the Grimm's scholarly notes are not    included.)

The    first volume of the first edition was published in 1812, containing 86    stories; the second volume of 70 stories followed in 1815. For the second    edition, two volumes were issued in 1819 and a third in 1822, totaling 170    tales. The third edition appeared in 1837; fourth edition, 1840; fifth    edition, 1843; sixth edition, 1850; seventh edition, 1857. Stories were    added, and also subtracted, from one edition to the next, until the seventh    held 211 tales. All editions were extensively illustrated, first by Philipp    Grot Johann and, after his death in 1892, by German illustrator Robert    Leinweber

The    first volumes were much criticized because, although they were called    "Children's Tales", they were not regarded as suitable for    children, both for the scholarly information included and the subject    matter.[1] Many changes through the editions – such as turning the wicked    mother of the first edition in Snow White and Hansel and Gretel (shown in    original Grimm stories as Hänsel and Grethel) to a stepmother, were    probably made with an eye to such suitability. They removed sexual    references—such as Rapunzel's innocently asking why her dress was getting    tight around her belly, and thus naïvely revealing to her stepmother her    pregnancy and the prince's visits—but, in many respects, violence,    particularly when punishing villains, was increased.

In    1825, the Brothers published their Kleine Ausgabe or "small    edition", a

selection    of 50 tales designed for child readers. This children's version went    through ten editions between 1825 and 1858.

Influence    

The    influence of these books was widespread. W. H. Auden praised the    collection, during World War II, as one of the founding works of Western    culture. The tales themselves have been put to many uses. Hitler praised    them as folkish tales showing children with sound racial instincts seeking    racially pure marriage partners, and so strongly that the Allied forces    warned against them; for instance, Cinderella with the heroine as racially    pure, the stepmother as an alien, and the prince with an unspoiled instinct    being able to distinguish. Writers who have written about the Holocaust    have combined the tales with their memoirs, as Jane Yolen in her Briar    Rose.

The    work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them    to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe, in a spirit of    romantic nationalism, that the fairy tales of a country were particularly    representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among    those influenced were the Russian Alexander, the Norwegians, the English    Joseph Jacobs, and Jeremiah Curtin, an American who collected Irish tales.    There was not always a pleased reaction to their collection. Joseph Jacobs    was in part inspired by his complaint that English children did not read    English fairy tales;[8] in his own words, "What Perrault began, the    Grimms completed".

Three    individual works of Wilhelm Grimm include Altdänische Heldenlieder,    Balladen und Märchen ('Old Danish Heroic Songs, Ballads, and Folktales') in    1811, Über deutsche Runen ('On German Runes') in 1821, and Die deutsche    Heldensage ('The German Heroic Saga') in 1829.